Skip to content

shebanq

נֵר nēr – lamp

Semantic Fields: Utensils   Light   
Author(s): Cornelis Houtman
First published: 2011-03-24
Citation: Cornelis Houtman, נֵר nēr – lamp,
               Semantics of Ancient Hebrew Database (sahd-online.com), 2011 (WORK IN PROGRESS)

Introduction

Grammatical type:
Occurrences: 44x HB (17/8/19)

  • Torah: Exod 25:37 (2x); 27:20; 30:7, 8; 35:14; 37:23; 39:37 (2x); 40:4, 25; Lev 24:2, 4; Num 4:9; 8:2 (2x), 3;
  • Nebiim: 1 Sam 3:3; 2 Sam 21:17; 22:29; 1 Kgs 7:49; Jer 25:10; Zeph 1:12; Zech 4:2 (2x);
  • Ketubim: Pss 18:29; 119:105; 132:17; Job 18:6; 21:17; 29:3; Prov 6:23; 13:9; 20:20, 27; 24:20; 31:18; 1 Chron 28:15 (3x); 2 Chron 4:20, 21; 13:11; 29:7.

A.1 (נֵיר in 2 Sam. 22:29 included) נֵר also occurs as a proper name and as an element in proper names, cf. below. The name Neriah is attested on ostraca, for example from Lachish (1,5) and Arad (31,4). See the evidence in D. Kellermann, TWAT, Bd. 5, 621; Aḥituv 2008, 56, 135, 177.

1. Root and Comparative Material

A.1 Semitic: נֵר is a derivative of the common Semitic root nwr/nyr ‘to give light’ (Leslau, CDG, 401, 410; Klein, CEDHL, 410, 427; HAHAT, 797).

2. Formal Characteristics

A.1 [Discussion will be added later.]

3. Syntagmatics

A.1 [Discussion will be added later.]

4. Ancient Versions

a. Septuagint (LXX) and other Greek versions (αʹ, σʹ, θʹ):

  • Prov 20:20; 24:20 λαμπτήρ -- GELS-L, 277: ‘lantern, lamp, torch’; LSJ, 1028: (1) ‘stand or grate for pine and other wood used for lightning rooms’ (2) ‘lantern’; Prov 13:9; 20:27 φῶς -- GELS-L,, 511: ‘light, day-light, illumination’; LSJ, 1916: ‘the light of a torch, lamp, fire etc.’; in all other instances (in Zeph 1:12 plur. for MT sing.)
    λύχνος (so α´, σ´, θ´ also in Prov 20:27; 24:20) -- GELS-L, 286: ‘lamp’; LSJ, 1068: ‘portable light, lamp’.

b. Peshitta (Pesh):

  • In all instances Pesh renders šrgʾ -- Payne Smith (Margoliouth), CSD, 597: ‘lamp’. Part of 1 Chron 28:15 and 2 Chron 4:20-21 are lacking. According to the Leiden edition, Pesh has a singular in Zeph 1:12 and Zech 4:2b where MT has a plural.

c. Targum (Tg):

  • TgO, TgPsJ, TgN in all instances בוצינא plur. (also in Exod 27:20; Lev 24:2; sing. in MT) -- Levy, CWT, vol. 1, 86: ‘ein aus Linnen (בוּצּ, od. Flachs) bereiteter Docht’ (cf. Greek βύσσος); ‘Leuchte’; Jastrow, DTT, 147: ‘wicks’; ‘candle, lamp, light’; Sokoloff, DJPA, 88: ‘lamp, light’; TgJ 2 Sam 21:17 מלכותא → נִיר, section 5; 2 Sam 22:29 נהורא -- Levy, CWT, vol. 2, 96: ‘Licht’; Jastrow, DTT, 881: ‘light’; Sokoloff, DJPA, 342: ‘light’. Zeph. 1:12 נברשתא -- Levy, CWT, vol. 2, 87: ‘Flamme, od. Lampe, Leuchter’; Jastrow, DTT, 871: ‘lamp, candle’; TgK 18:29; 119:105; 132:17; late Rabbinic Targum Job 18:6; 21:17; 29:3 (in none of the cases 11Q10 has been preserved): שרגא -- Levy, CWT, vol. 2, 517: ‘Licht, Leuchte’; Jastrow, DTT, 1628: ‘light, lamp, lantern’. No Targum of Proverbs exists, only a late Midrash. In all remaining instances the Targumim have בוצינא (see above).

d. Vulgate (Vg):

  • lucerna -- Lewis & Short, LD, 1079: ‘lamp, oil-lamp, light’.

A.1 SPT: In all instances בוצינא -- Tal, DSA, 86: ‘candle, lamp’.

5. Lexical/Semantic Fields

A.1 [Discussion will be added later.]

6. Exegesis

6.1 Textual Evidence

A.1 With the exception of Prov 31:18 the literal use is confined to passages dealing with articles of sanctuary furniture. The texts with its figurative use, however, also contribute to the understanding of the literal use.

The lamp’s function is to light, to illuminate (אור hiph., Num 8:2; cf. Exod 25:37; Ps 18:29). It is a source of light (cf. נֵר אֹור, ‘the light of the lamp’, Jer 25:10) and can be equated with ‘light’ (cf. the parallellism נֵר | אֹור [Ps 119:105; Job 29:3; Prov 6:23] and אֹור | נֵר [Job 18:6; Prov 13:9]). The lamp is used in houses of man (Job 18:6; Prov 31:18) and in the dwelling of God, in the Tabernacle (Exod 25:37[2x]; 27:20; 30:8; 35:14; 37:23; 39:37[2x]; 40:4, 25; Lev 24:2, 4; Num 4:9; 8:2 [2x], 3; except Exod 27:20; Lev 24:2 always used in the plur.), the sanctuary of Shiloh (אֱלֹהִים נֵר, 1 Sam 3:3), and in the Temple of Solomon (always in plur., 1 Kgs 7:49; 1 Chron 28:15 [3x]; 2 Chron 4:20f.; 13:11; 29:7). Evidently also in Zech 4:2 (plur. 2x) holy lamps are meant.

The lamp is used to dispel the opposite of light (2 Sam 22:29; Ps 18:29; Job 18:6; 29:3; Prov 20:20), the darkness (חֹשֶׁךְ) of the night, including the haunting demons. Apotropaic power is attributed to the light. Even in the houses of th poorest a lamp as kept burning at night (Weippert 2002, 182). The presence of lamps in the sanctuary, intended to guarantee that also at night the deity would have a pleasant and safe abode, betrays a strongly anthropomorphic notion of God. The lamp also serves to find one’s way in the darkness (Ps 119:105; Job 29:3; Prov 6:23) or to look for (חפשׁ qal or pi.) something or someone in dark or hidden places (Zeph 1:12 [plur.]; Prov 20:27; cf. Luke 15:8). To increase the effect of the light, the lamp is placed on a stand (→ מְנֹרָה). Lamps and stand belong together and are often mentioned together (Exod 25:37; 37:23; 39:37; 40:4, 24f.; Lev 24:4; Num 8:2f.;1 Kgs 7:49; Zech 4:2; 1 Chron 28:15; 2 Chron 4:20f.; 13:11). To boost the intensity of the light more lamps are used. In Exod 25:37; 37:23; Num 8:2; Zech 4:2 the number of seven lamps occurs. With exception of Zech 4:2 (the seven lamps had seven spouts [מוּצָקֹות]) no information is given about the lamp’s shape. Because in Exod 25:37; 37:23 it is not explicitly stated that the lights are to be of gold (note also Exod 25:38; 37:23), it is sometimes assumed that, like common lamps (see section 8), the Tabernacle lamps were of ceramic (e.g. Meyers 1976, 57). It has to be borne in mind, however, that metal lamps were luxury items. Because YHWH’s house is furnished like the house of a prince, and because the lamps of the Temple of Solomon were made of gold (זָהָב; 1 Kgs 7:49; 1 Chron 28:15 [+ כֶּסֶף, ‘silver’]; 2 Chron 4:20f.), it is natural to think of lamps of gold. So LXX Exod 38:17. The lamp burns oil (הַמָּאֹור שֶׁמֶן, → מָּאֹור) by means of one or more wicks (→ פִּּשְׁתָֹּה). For the care (ערך qal [Exod 27:21; Lev 24:3f.; Ps 132:17; cf. Exod 39:37]) of the lamp, the lighting of which is explicitly mentioned (עלה hiph. in Exod 25:37; 27:20; 30:8; 40:4, 25; Lev 24:2; Num 8:2f.; בער pi. in 2 Chron 4:20; 13:11), various utensils (→ כְּלִי) were available, further particularised as ‘containers and fuels of the lampstand’s oil’ (שַׁמְנָהּ כְּלֵי, Num 4:9; cf. Matt 25:3f.), ‘forceps, tongs’ (→ מֶלְקַחַיִם), ‘firepans’ (→ מַחְתָֹּה plur.), ‘trimming knives, snuffers’ (→ מְזַמֶּרֶת).

Spreading of darkness as a result of the lamp’s extinguishing (דעך qal [Job 18:5f.; 21:17; Prov 13:9; 20:20; 24:20]; כבה qal [1 Sam 3:3; Prov 31:18] and pi. [2 Sam 21:17; 2 Chron 29:7]) has to be prevented by good care. According to Exod 30:7f.; Lev 24:3 (cf. also Num 8:2f.), the care for the lights in the Tabernacle was entrusted to Aaron, the highpriest. In Exod 27:21 that task is also assigned to his sons, the priests (cf. 2 Chron 13:10f.).

With regard to the time of burning of the lamps in the Tabernacle the information is diverse. In Exod 27:20 and Lev 24:2 mention is made of permanent light (תָֹּמִיד נֵר; for the conspicuous sing. [to be regarded as a collective, cf. Lev 24:4, or as the incorporation of an ancient tradition according to which originally there stood just one lamp in the sanctuary, cf. 1 Sam 3:3] see the discussion in Houtman 2000, 462f.). However, Exod 27:21; 30:7f.; Lev 24:3 give the impression that the light burned only at night, from evening till morning (cf. 1 Sam 3:3; 2 Chron 3:11). It has been proposed that continuous burning was necessary because light from the outside could not reach the inner sanctuary. It is further contended that in ancient Israel there was the custom to have a lamp burning in the house day and night. If that were the case, the existence of an analogous practice in the sanctuary would be quite plausible. It is doubtful if such a custom of letting a lamp burn continually really existed (see Galling 1923, 33-37). What is possible is that people liked to have a lamp burning all night. Particularly the well-to-do could afford that (Prov 31:18). For the sanctuary it was an ordinance to have the lamp burning through the whole night. The true meaning of Exod 27:20 seems to be that there must always be enough oil, so that without interruption, each night anew, the light can burn again. Negligence brings on the wrath of YHWH (cf. 2 Chron 29:7). It must be assumed that, as with regular homes, the sanctuary was naturally light enough by day (cf. also 1 Kgs 8:12).

The lamp, i.e. the burning lamp, is used as a metaphor for the Torah of YHWH (Ps 119:105), and for the instruction of the Wisdom teacher (Prov 6:23). It is a symbol of the social (Jer 25:10; cf. 4 Ezra 10:22; Rev 18:23) as well as of the individual happiness and prosperity (Ps 18:29; Prov 13:19a) which have to be attributed to YHWH’s ‘lamp’, God’s benevolent and salutary presence (2 Sam 22:29; Job 29:3; cf. the characterisation of YHWH as אֹור ־יִשְׂרָאֵל in Isa 10:17, and as וְיִשְׁעִי אֹורִי in Ps 27:1). Cf. also Prov 31:18, where the lamp has a literal as well as a figurative sense (permanent wellbeing). Generally the text of Prov 20:27 with the lamp of YHWH (יְהוָה נֵר ) as a metaphor for ‘the human spirit’ (אָדָם נִשְׁמַת), is considered corrupt (נֹצֵר ‘he who heeds’ instead of נֵר is proposed; cf. Job 7:20; Prov 24:12). The lamp also is a symbol of the king as the source of blessing for his people, of whom the nation’s wellbeing depends (יִשְׂרָאֵל נֵר, of David in 2 Sam 21:17, → beginRנִיר\endR; cf. the characterisation of the king as אַפֵּּינוּ רוּחַ, ‘the breath of our nostrils’ in Lam 4:20), and a designation for the royal descendant on the throne who keeps the dynastic light burning (Ps 132:17; cf. the use of → נִיר). Similarly Babylonian and Assyrian deities and kings could be designated as the nūru ‘light, lamp’ of world (CAD (N), 347-351). The Old Aramaic light-goddess Aya is called Nr (KAI, Bd. 1, 245).

The lamps of Zeph 1:12 may be regarded as a designation of the eyes of YHWH (cf. Zech 3:9; 4:10). The extinguished lamp is a symbol of the misfortune and the end of the wicked (Job 18:6; 21:17; Prov 13:9b; 20:20: 24:20), who have no descendants and no future (cf. also Rev 2:5). In the sanctuary the radiant light of the lamps offers a fitting environment to him who is all brightness and glory (cf. Isa 60:1-3; Hab 3:4, 11; Ps 50:2; 104:1f. and e.g. 1 Tim 6:16; 1 John 1:5). It is assumed that נֵר as a personal name (1 Sam 14:50f.; 1 Chron 8:33, etc.) and as an element of a personal name, אֲבִינֵר (1 Sam 14:50) or אַבְנֵר, Abner (‘the father is a lamp’ or ‘Ner is the father’, 1 Sam 14:50f. etc.), and נֵרִיָּהוּ or נֵרִיָּה, Neriah (‘my lamp is YH, Jer 32:12, 16; 36:14, 32 etc.), is also a metaphor of happiness and prosperity (Noth 1928, 167f.; Fowler 1988, 81).

Cf. Krauss, TA, Bd. 1, 68-71. The cultic lamps are dealt with in Judaic sources, but their data do not contribute to the elucidation of their form and meaning in the Hebrew Bible. According to later tradition, also during the day a light was burning in the sanctuary. Josephus, Ant., III.199, relates that three of the seven lamps remained lit. Rabbinic tradition mentions only one lamp that was kept burning and used to light the other lamps at night (m.Tamid, III, 10[9]; VI, 1). Complete quenching of the lamp was regarded as ominous (b.Joma, 39b). It would seem that the later practice was influenced by the tradition about the tent shrine. The existence of a permanently burning light in the second temple is explicitly mentioned by Pseudo-Hecataeus (in Josephus, Apion, I, 199). Also the synagogue had one or two permanent lamps. In 11Q19 (= 11QTemplea) נר plur. occurs in col. IX.12 and XXII.1 (see also 11Q20b V.22).

6.2 Pictorial Material

A.1 → מְנֹרָה and Avitzur, 104; EM, 921-2, and see furter section 8.

6.3 Archaeology

A.1 The lamp was invented in prehistoric times (Salonen, Hausgeräte, vol. 1, 131-3). It was a shallow bowl (for the oil), sometimes with the rims bent inward and with one or more (cf. Zech. 4:2) notches -- the rim pinched outward, creating a spout -- for one or more wicks (of flax) (→ פִּּשְׁתָֹּה). It is known that from the end of the 7th century in Palestine there was in use a closed lamp with two openings, a spout for the wick and a shallow cavity with a circular hole for pouring in the oil. Sometimes the lamps had a small base and normally were of pottery, but lamps made of stone and metal were in use as well. For descriptions and illustrations see Dalman, AuS, Bd. 4, 269-73; Bd. 7, 230-2; BRL2, 198-201; Barrois 1939, 451-453; Smith 1961; 1964; 1966; Kennedy 1963; Israeli & Avida 1988; Weippert 1988, 335f., 410-2, 640-5; Adler 2004; Sussman 2007.

7. Conclusion

A.1 The lamp was a shallow bowl containing olive- or castor oil, sometimes with the rims bent inward and with one or more notches for one or more wicks. Usually it was of ceramic, but as luxury items also metal lamps were in use. Often the lamp denotes the burning lamp. In that case נֵר can acquire the meaning ‘light’.

Bibliography

For the abbreviations see the List of Abbreviations.

Adler 2004: N. Adler, A Comprehensive Catalogue of Oil Lamps of the Holy Land from the Adler Collection, Jerusalem: Old City Press, 2004 -- Aḥituv 2008: S. Aḥituv, Echoes from the Past: Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period. Jerusalem 2008

Barrois 1939: A.G. Barrois, Manuel d’archéologie biblique, vol.1, Paris 1939, 451-3

C.J. Bleeker, ‘Some Remarks on the Religious Significance of Light’, JAOS 5 (1973), 23-34

De Geus 1986: C.H.J. de Geus, ‘Signum ignis signum vitae: Lamps in Ancient Israelite Tombs’, in: Scripta signa vocis (Fs J.H. Hospers), Groningen 1986, 65-75

Fowler 1988: J. Fowler, Theophoric Personal Names in Ancient Hebrew: A Comparative Study (JSOT.S,49), Sheffield 1988, 81

Galling 1923: K. Galling, ‘Die Beleuchtungsgeräte im israelitisch-jüdischen Kulturgebiet’, ZDPV 46 (1923), 1-50

Houtman 2000: C. Houtman, Exodus (HCOT), Leuven 2000, 462f.

Israeli & Avida 1988: Y. Israeli & U. Avida (eds), Oil--lamps from Eretz Israel: The Louis and Carmen Warschaw Collection at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Jerusalem 1988

Kennedy 1963: C.A. Kennedy, ‘The Development of the Lamp in Palestine’, Berytus 14 (1963), 67-115

Meyers 1976: C.L. Meyers, The Tabernacle Menorah: A Synthetic Study of a Symbol from the Biblical Cult (ASOR.DS, 2), Missoula 1976, 57

Meyers 2008: C.L. Meyers. ‘Framing Aaron: Incense Altar and Lamp Oil in the Tabernacle Texts’, in: S. Dolansky(ed.), Sacred History, Sacred Literature: Essays on Ancient Israel, the Bible, and Religion in Honor of R.E. Friedman, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2008, 13-21

Noth 1928: M. Noth, Die israelitischen Personennamen im Rahmen der gemeinsemitischen Namengebung, Stuttgart 1928, 167f.

Smith 1961: R.H. Smith, ‘The ‘‘Herodian’’ Lamp of Palestine: Types and Dates’, Berytus 14 (1961), 53-65

Smith 1964: R.H. Smith, ‘The Household Lamps of Palestine in Old Testament Times’, BA 27 (1964), 2-31, 101-124

Smith 1966: R.H. Smith, ‘The Household Lamps of Palestine in New Testament Times’, BA 29 (1966), 2-27

Sussman 2007: V. Sussman, Oil-Lamps in the Holy Land: Saucer Lamps from the Beginning to the Hellenistic Period -- Collections of the Israel Antiquities Authority (BAR International Series, 1598), Oxford 2007

Weippert 2002: H. Weippert, ‘Der Lärm und die Stille: Ethno-archäologische Annäherungen an das biblische Alltagsleben’, in: A. Lemaire (ed.), Congress Volume Basel 2001 (VT.S, 92), Leiden 2002, 163-84.

Semantics of Ancient Hebrew Database